. Phonetics is a branch of that studies the sounds of human speech, or—in the case of —the equivalent aspects of sign. It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs : their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status., on the other hand, is concerned with the abstract, characterization of systems of sounds or signs. In the case of oral languages, phonetics has three basic areas of study:.: the study of the and their use in producing speech sounds by the speaker.: the study of the physical transmission of speech sounds from the speaker to the listener.: the study of the reception and perception of speech sounds by the listener. Contents.
History The first known phonetic studies were carried out as early as the 6th century BCE by grammarians. The Hindu scholar is among the most well known of these early investigators, whose four part grammar, written around 350 BCE, is influential in modern linguistics and still represents 'the most complete generative grammar of any language yet written'. His grammar formed the basis of modern linguistics and described a number of important phonetic principles. Pāṇini provided an account of the phonetics of voicing, describing resonance as being produced either by tone, when vocal folds are closed, or noise, when vocal folds are open. The phonetic principles in the grammar are considered 'primitives' in that they are the basis for his theoretical analysis rather than the objects of theoretical analysis themselves, and the principles can be inferred from his system of phonology. Advancements in phonetics after Pāṇini and his contemporaries were limited until the modern era, save some limited investigations by Greek and Roman grammarians.
The phonetic alphabet is a list of words used to identify letters in a message transmitted by radio, telephone, and encrypted messages. The phonetic alphabet can.
In the millenia between Indic grammarians and modern phonetics the focus of phonetics shifted from the difference between spoken and written language, which was the driving force behind Pāṇini's account, and began to focus on the physical properties of speech alone. Sustained interest in phonetics began again around 1800 CE with the term 'phonetics' being first used in the present sense in 1841. With new developments in medicine and the development of audio and visual recording devices, phonetic insights were able to use and review new and more detailed data. This early period of modern phonetics included the development of an influential phonetic alphabet based on articulatory positions. Known as, it gained prominency as a tool in the. Anatomy of the vocal system Speech sounds are generally produced by the modification of an airstream exhaled from the lungs.
The respiratory organs used to create and modify airflow are divided into three regions: the vocal tract (supralaryngeal), the, and the subglottal system. The airstream can be either egressive (out of the vocal tract) or ingressive (into the vocal tract). In pulmonic sounds, the airstream is produced by the lungs in the subglottal system and passes through the larynx and vocal tract. Glottalic sounds use an airstream created by movements of the larynx without airflow from the lungs.
Clicks or lingual ingressive sounds create an airstream using the tongue. Vocal tract. Passive and active places of articulation: (1) Exo-labial; (2) Endo-labial; (3) Dental; (4) Alveolar; (5) Post-alveolar; (6) Pre-palatal; (7) Palatal; (8) Velar; (9) Uvular; (10) Pharyngeal; (11) Glottal; (12) Epiglottal; (13) Radical; (14) Postero-dorsal; (15) Antero-dorsal; (16) Laminal; (17) Apical; (18) Sub-apical or sub-laminal. Articulations take place in particular parts of the mouth. They are described by the part of the mouth that constricts airflow and by what part of the mouth that constriction occurs. In most languages constrictions are made with the lips and tongue.
Constrictions made by the lips are called. The tongue can make constrictions with many different parts, broadly classified into coronal and dorsal places of articulation. Articulations are made with either the tip or blade of the tongue, while articulations are made with the back of the tongue. These divisions are not sufficient for distinguishing and describing all speech sounds. For example, in English the sounds s and ʃ are both voiceless coronal fricatives, but they are produced in different places of the mouth.
Additionally, that difference in place can result in a difference of meaning like in 'sack' and 'shack'. To account for this, articulations are further divided based upon the area of the mouth in which the constriction occurs. Labial consonants. Main article: Articulations involving the lips can be made in three different ways: with both lips (bilabial), with one lip and the teeth (labiodental), and with the tongue and the upper lip (linguolabial). Depending on the definition used, some or all of these kinds of articulations may be categorized into the class of.
Ladefoged and Maddieson (1996) propose that linguolabial articulations be considered coronals rather than labials, but make clear this grouping, like all groupings of articulations, is equivocable and not cleanly divided. Linguolabials are included in this section as labials given their use of the lips as a place of articulation.
Are made with both lips. In producing these sounds the lower lip moves farthest to meet the upper lip, which also moves down slightly, though in some cases the force from air moving through the aperature (opening between the lips) may cause the lips to separate faster than they can come together. Unlike most other articulations, both articulators are made from soft tissue, and so bilabial stops are more likely to be produced with incomplete closures than articulations involving hard surfaces like the teeth or palate. Bilabial stops are also unusual in that an articulator in the upper section of the vocal tract actively moves downwards, as the upper lip shows some active downward movement. Are made by the lower lip rising to the upper teeth.
Labiodental consonants are most often while labiodental nasals are also typologically common. There is debate as to whether true labiodental occur in any natural language, though a number of languages are reported to have labiodental plosives including,.
Labiodental are reported in which would require the stop portion of the affricate to be a labiodental stop, though Ladefoged and Maddieson (1996) raise the possibility that labiodental affricates involve a bilabial closure like 'pf' in German. Unlike plosives and affricates, labiodental nasals are common across languages. Are made with the blade of the tongue approaching or contacting the upper lip. Like in bilabial articulations, the upper lip moves slightly towards the more active articulator. Articulations in this group do not have their own symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet, rather, they are formed by combining an apical symbol with a diacritic implicitly placing them in the coronal category. They exist in a number of languages indigenous to such as, though early descriptions referred to them as apical-labial consonants.
The name 'linguolabial' was suggested by given that they are produced with the blade rather than the tip of the tongue. Coronal consonants.
![Phonetic Phonetic](/uploads/1/2/4/0/124098517/962759553.jpg)
Main article: Dorsal consonants are those consonants made using the tongue body rather than the tip or blade. Are made using the tongue body against the hard palate on the roof of the mouth. They are frequently contrasted with velar or uvular consonants, though it is rare for a language to contrast all three simultaneously, with as a possible example of a three way contrast. Are made using the tongue body against the velum. They are incredibly common crosslinguistically; almost all languages have a velar stop.
Because both velars and vowels are made using the tongue body, they are highly affected by with vowels and can be produced as far forward as the hard palate or as far back as the uvula. These variations are typically divided into front, central, and back velars in parallel with the vowel space. They can be hard to distinguish phonetically from palatal consonants, though are produced slightly behind the area of prototypical palatal consonants. Are made by the tongue body contacting or approaching the uvula.
They are rare, occurring in an estimated 19 percent of languages, and large regions of the Americas and Africa have no languages with uvular consonants. In languages with uvular consonants, stops are most frequent followed by (including nasals).
The larynx. The larynx, commonly known as the 'voice box' is a cartilaginous structure in the responsible for. The vocal folds (chords) are held together so that they vibrate, or held apart so that they do not. The positions of the vocal folds are achieved by movement of the. The are responsible for moving the arytenoid cartilages as well as modulating the tension of the vocal folds. If the vocal folds are not close enough or not tense enough, they will vibrate sporadically (described as creaky or breathy voice depending on the degree) or not at all (voiceless sounds).
Even if the vocal folds are in the correct position, there must be air flowing across them or they will not vibrate. The difference in pressure across the glottis required for voicing is estimated at 1 – 2 (98.0665 – 196.133 pascals). The pressure differential can fall below levels required for phonation either because of an increase in pressure above the glottis (superglottal pressure) or a decrease in pressure below the glottis (subglottal pressure).
The subglottal pressure is maintained by the. Supraglottal pressure, with no constrictions or articulations, is about. However, because articulations (especially consonants) represent constrictions of the airflow, the pressure in the cavity behind those constrictions can increase resulting in a higher supraglottal pressure. Pulmonary and subglottal system. Further information: The lungs are the engine that drives nearly all speech production, and their importance in phonetics is due to their creation of pressure for pulmonic sounds. The most common kinds of sound across languages are pulmonic egress, where air is exhaled from the lungs.
The opposite is possible, though no language is known to have pulmonic ingressive sounds as phonemes. Many languages such as use them for articulations such as affirmations in a number of genetically and geographically diverse languages. Both egressive and ingressive sounds rely on holding the vocal folds in a particular posture and using the lungs to draw air across the vocal folds so that they either vibrate (voiced) or do not vibrate (voiceless).
Pulmonic articulations are restricted by the volume of air able to be exhaled in a given respiratory cycle, known as the. The lungs are used to maintain two kinds of pressure simultaneously in order to produce and modify phonation. In order to produce phonation at all, the lungs must maintain a pressure of 3–5 cm H 20 higher than the pressure above the glottis. However small and fast adjustments are made to the subglottal pressure to modify speech for suprasegmental features like stress. A number of thoracic muscles are used to make these adjustments. Because the lungs and thorax stretch during inhalation, the elastic forces of the lungs alone are able to produce pressure differentials sufficient for phonation at lung volumes above 50 percent of vital capacity. Above 50 percent of vital capacity, the are used to 'check' the elastic forces of the thorax to maintain a stable pressure differential.
Below that volume, they are used to increase the subglottal pressure by actively exhaling air. During speech the respiratory cycle is modified to accommodate both linguistic and biological needs.
Exhalation, usually about 60 percent of the respiratory cycle at rest, is increased to about 90 percent of the respiratory cycle. Because metabolic needs are relatively stable, the total volume of air moved in most cases of speech remains about the same as quiet tidal breathing. Increases in speech intensity of 18 dB (a loud conversation) has relatively little impact on the volume of air moved.
Because their respiratory systems are not as developed as adults, children tend to use a larger proportion of their vital capacity compared to adults, with more deep inhales. Voicing and phonation types An important factor in describing the production of most speech sounds is the state of the glottis—the space between the vocal folds. Muscles inside the larynx make adjustments to the vocal folds in order to produce and modify vibration patterns for different sounds.
Two canonical examples are modal voiced, where the vocal folds vibrate, and voiceless, where they do not. Modal voiced and voiceless consonants are incredibly common across languages, and all languages use both phonation types to some degree. Consonants can be either voiced or voiceless, though some languages do not make distinctions between them for certain consonants. No language is known to have a phonemic voicing contrast for vowels, though there are languages, like, where vowels are produced as voiceless in certain contexts. Other positions of the glottis, such as breathy and creaky voice, are used in a number of languages, like, to contrast while in other languages, like English, they exist allophonically. Phonation types are modelled on a continuum of glottal states from completely open (voiceless) to completely closed (glottal stop). The optimal position for vibration, and the phonation type most used in speech, modal voice, exists in the middle of these two extremes.
If the glottis is slightly wider, breathy voice occurs, while bringing the vocal folds closer together results in creaky voice. There are a number of ways to determine if a segment is voiced or not, the simplest being to feel the larynx during speech and note when vibrations are felt. More precise measurements can be obtained through acoustic analysis of a spectrogram or spectral slice.
In spectrographic analysis, voiced segments show a voicing bar, a region of high acoustic energy, in the low frequencies of voiced segments. In examining a spectral splice, the acoustic spectrum at a given point in time a model of the vowel pronounced reverses the filtering of the mouth producing the spectrum of the glottis. A computational model of the unfiltered glottal signal is then fitted to the inverse filtered acoustic signal to determine the characteristics of the glottis. Visual analysis is also available using specialized medical equipment such as ultrasound and endoscopy. For the vocal folds to vibrate, they must be in the proper position and there must be air flowing through the glottis. The normal phonation pattern used in typical speech is modal voice, where the vocal folds are held close together with moderate tension. The vocal folds vibrate as a single unit periodically and efficiently with a full glottal closure and no aspiration.
If they are pulled farther apart, they do not vibrate and so produce voiceless phones. If they are held firmly together they produce a glottal stop. If the vocal folds are held slightly further apart than in modal voicing, they produce phonation types like breathy voice (or murmur) and whispery voice. The tension across the vocal ligaments is less than in modal voicing allowing for air to flow more freely. Both breathy voice and whispery voice exist on a continuum loosely characterized as going from the more periodic waveform of breathy voice to the more noisy waveform of whispery voice. Acoustically, both tend to dampen the first formant with whispery voice being more extreme deviations.
Holding the vocal folds more tightly together results in a creaky voice. The tension in across the vocal folds is less than in modal voice, but they are held tightly together resulting in only the ligaments of the vocal folds vibrating. The pulses are highly irregular, with low pitch and frequency amplitude. Articulatory models When producing speech, the articulators move through and contact particular locations in space resulting in changes to the acoustic signal. Some models of speech production take this as the basis for modeling articulation in a coordinate system which may be internal to the body (intrinsic) or external (extrinsic). Intrinsic coordinate systems model the movement of articulators as positions and angles of joints in the body.
Intrinsic coordinate models of the jaw often use two to three degrees of freedom representing translation and rotation. These face issues with modeling the tongue which, unlike joints of the jaw and arms, is a like an elephant trunk that lacks joints. Because of the different physiological structures, movement paths of the jaw are relatively straight lines during speech and mastication, while movements of the tongue follow curves. Straight line movements have been used to argue articulations as planned in extrinsic rather than intrinsic space, though extrinsic coordinate systems also include acoustic coordinate spaces, not just physical coordinate spaces.
Models which assume movements are planned in extrinsic space run into an of explaining the muscle and joint locations which produce the observed path or acoustic signal. The arm, for example, has seven degrees of freedom and 22 muscles, so multiple different joint and muscle configurations can lead to the same final position. For models of planning in extrinsic acoustic space, the same one-to-many mapping problem applies as well, with no unique mapping from physical or acoustic targets to the muscle movements required to achieve them. Concerns about the inverse problem may be exagerated, however, as speech is a highly learned skill using neurological structures which evolved for the purpose. The equilibrium-point model proposes a resolution to the inverse problem by arguing that movement targets be represented as the position of the muscle pairs acting on a joint. Importantly, muscles are modeled as springs, and the target is the equilibrium point for the modeled spring-mass system. By using springs, the equilibrium point model is able to easily account for compensation and response when movements are disrupted.
They are considered a coordinate model because they assume that these muscle positions are represented as points in space, equilibrium points, where the spring-like action of the muscles converges. Gestural approaches to speech production propose that articulations are represented as movement patterns rather than particular coordinates to hit. The minimal unit is a gesture which represents a group of 'functionally equivalent articulatory movement patterns that are actively controlled with reference to a given speech-relevant goal (e.g., a bilabial closure).' These groups represent coordinative structures or 'synergies' which view movements not as individual muscle movements but as task-dependent groupings of muscles which work together as a single unit. This reduces the degrees of freedom in articulation planning, a problem especially in intrinsic coordinate models, which allows for any movement that achieves the speech goal, rather than encoding the particular movements in the abstract representation. Coarticulation is well described by gestural models as the articulations at faster speech rates can be explained as composites of the independent gestures at slower speech rates. Subfields Phonetics as a research discipline has three main branches:.
is concerned with the articulation of speech: The position, shape, and movement of articulators or, such as the lips, tongue,. is concerned with of speech: The spectro-temporal properties of the produced by speech, such as their,. is concerned with: the, and of speech sounds and the role of the and the in the same. Phonetic insight is used in a number of fields such as:.: the use of phonetics (the science of speech) for forensic (legal) purposes.: the analysis and transcription of recorded speech by a computer system.: the production of human speech by a computer system.: to learn actual pronunciation of words of various languages. Relation to phonology In contrast to phonetics, is the study of how sounds and gestures pattern in and across languages, relating such concerns with other levels and aspects of language.
Phonetics deals with the articulatory and acoustic properties of speech sounds, how they are produced, and how they are perceived. As part of this investigation, phoneticians may concern themselves with the physical properties of meaningful sound contrasts or the social meaning encoded in the speech signal (e.g., etc.). However, a substantial portion of research in phonetics is not concerned with the meaningful elements in the speech signal. While it is widely agreed that phonology is grounded in phonetics, phonology is a distinct branch of linguistics, concerned with sounds and gestures as abstract units (e.g., etc.) and their conditioned variation (via, e.g., constraints, or ).
Phonology has been argued to relate to phonetics via the set of, which map the abstract representations of speech units to articulatory gestures, acoustic signals or perceptual representations. Transcription., pp. 2922–3., pp. 16–17. ^, pp. 17–18., pp. 19–31., pp. 19–25., pp. 20, 40–1., pp. 25, 27–8., pp. 33–34., pp. 300–301., pp. 168–77., pp. 388, et seq., p. 400-401., p. 299, et seq., pp. 362–4.
References.
Letter 1957-Present Morse Code 1913 1927 1938 World War II A Alfa (or Alpha). Able Affirmative Afirm Afirm (Able) B Bravo. Boy Baker Baker Baker C Charlie.
Cast Cast Cast Charlie D Delta. Dog Dog Dog Dog E Echo. Easy Easy Easy Easy F Foxtrot.
Fox Fox Fox Fox G Golf. George George George George H Hotel. Have Hypo Hypo How I India. Item Interrogatory Int Int (Item) J Juliett. Jig Jig Jig Jig K Kilo.
King King King King L Lima. Love Love Love Love M Mike Mike Mike Mike Mike N November.
Nan Negative Negat Negat (Nan) O Oscar Oboe Option Option Option (Oboe) P Papa. Pup Preparatory Prep Prep (Peter) Q Quebec. Quack Quack Queen Queen R Romeo.
Rush Roger Roger Roger S Sierra. Sail Sail Sail Sugar T Tango Tare Tare Tare Tare U Uniform.
Unit Unit Unit Uncle V Victor. Vice Vice Victor Victor W Whiskey. Watch William William William X X-ray.
X-ray X-ray X-ray X-ray Y Yankee. Yoke Yoke Yoke Yoke Z Zulu. Zed Zed Zed Zebra.